Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::open($save_path, $name) should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::open(string $path, string $name): bool, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::close() should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::close(): bool, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::read($session_id) should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::read(string $id): string|false, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::write($session_id, $session_data) should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::write(string $id, string $data): bool, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::destroy($session_id) should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::destroy(string $id): bool, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Message: Return type of CI_Session_database_driver::gc($maxlifetime) should either be compatible with SessionHandlerInterface::gc(int $max_lifetime): int|false, or the #[\ReturnTypeWillChange] attribute should be used to temporarily suppress the notice
Author: Slaven Jozic | Published on: 2017-09-30 21:56:47 Page: 46-77 2100
Abstract Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates—in particular genus Homo—and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. This process involved the gradual development of traits such as human bipedalism and language, as well as interbreeding with other hominines, which indicate that human evolution was not linear but a web.
The study of human evolution involves several scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, paleontology, neurobiology, ethology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, embryology and genetics. Genetic studies show that primates diverged from other mammals about 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, and the earliest fossils appear in the Paleocene, around 55 million years ago.
Within the Hominoidea (apes) superfamily, the Hominidae family diverged from the Hylobatidae (gibbon) family some 15–20 million years ago; African great apes (subfamily Homininae) diverged from orangutans (Ponginae) about 14 million years ago; the Hominini tribe (humans, Australopithecines and other extinct biped genera, and chimpanzee) parted from the Gorillini tribe (gorillas) between 8–9 million years ago; and, in turn, the subtribes Hominina (humans and biped ancestors) and Panina (chimps) separated 4–7.5 million years ago.
Keywords Bipedalism; Brain Size and Tooth Size in Hominines; Sexual Dimorphism; Ulnar Opposition.
Brian K. Hall; Benedikt Hallgrímsson (2011). Strickberger's Evolution. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 488. ISBN 978-1-4496-6390-2.
The Hybrid Origin of Modern Humans. (PDF). Rebecca Rogers Ackermann, Alex Mackay, Michael L. Arnold. Evol Biol. 3 October 2015. Doi: 10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1
Human Hybrids. (PDF). Michael F. Hammer. Scientific American, May 2013.
Mosaic humans, the hybrid species. New Scientist, Volume 211, Issue 2823, 30 July 2011, pp. 34–38. Doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3
Heng, Henry H.Q. (May 2009). "The genome-centric concept: resynthesis of evolutionary theory". BioEssays. 31 (5): 512–525. doi:10.1002/bies.200800182. ISSN 0265-9247. PMID 19334004.
Tyson, Peter (July 1, 2008). "Meet Your Ancestors". NOVA scienceNOW. PBS; WGBH Educational Foundation. Retrieved 2015-04-18.
Brunet, Michel; Guy, Franck; Pilbeam, David; et al. (July 11, 2002). "A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa". Nature. 418 (6894): 145–151. Doi: 10.1038/nature00879. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12110880.
Kwang Hyun, Ko (2015). "Origins of Bipedalism". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 58 (6): 929–934. Doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132015060399
."Study Identifies Energy Efficiency As Reason For Evolution Of Upright Walking". ScienceDaily. Rockville, MD: ScienceDaily, LLC. July 17, 2007. Retrieved 2015-04-09.
"Study identifies energy efficiency as reason for evolution of upright walking". UANews. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Office of University Communications. July 16, 2007. Retrieved 2015-04-23.
Sockol, Michael D.; Raichlen, David A.; Pontzer, Herman (July 24, 2007). "Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (30): 12265–12269. Bibcode: 2007PNAS...10412265S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703267104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1941460. PMID 17636134.
David-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2016). "Bipedality and Hair-loss Revisited: The Impact of Altitude and Activity Scheduling". Journal of Human Evolution. 94: 72–82. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006. PMC 4874949. PMID 27178459.
Zuk, Marlene (2014), "Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us about Sex, Diet, and How We Live" (W.W. Norton & Company)
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2011), "Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding" (Harvard Uni Press)
Wayman, Erin (August 19, 2013). "Killer whales, grandmas and what men want: Evolutionary biologists consider menopause". Science News. ISSN 0036-8423. Retrieved 2015-04-24.
Schoenemann, P. Thomas (October 2006). "Evolution of the Size and Functional Areas of the Human Brain". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 379–406. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123210. ISSN 0084-6570.
Brown, Graham; Fairfax, Stephanie; Sarao, Nidhi. "Tree of Life Web Project: Human Evolution". www.tolweb.org.
Park, Min S.; Nguyen, Andrew D.; Aryan, Henry E.; et al. (March 2007). "Evolution of the human brain: changing brain size and the fossil record". Neurosurgery. 60 (3): 555–562. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000249284.54137.32. ISSN 0148-396X. PMID 17327801.
Bruner, Emiliano (December 2007). "Cranial shape and size variation in human evolution: structural and functional perspectives". Child's Nervous System. 23 (12): 1357–1365. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.391.288. Doi: 10.1007/s00381-007-0434-2. ISSN 0256-7040. PMID 17680251.
Potts, Richard (October 2012). "Evolution and Environmental Change in Early Human Prehistory". Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 151–167. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145754. ISSN 0084-6570.
Leonard, William R.; Snodgrass, J. Josh; Robertson, Marcia L. (August 2007). "Effects of brain evolution on human nutrition and metabolism". Annual Review of Nutrition. 27: 311–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093659. ISSN 0199-9885. PMID 17439362.
McBroom, Patricia (June 14, 1999). "Meat-eating was essential for human evolution, says UC Berkeley anthropologist specializing in diet" (Press release). Berkeley: University of California Press. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
Mann, Neil (September 2007). "Meat in the human diet: An anthropological perspective". Nutrition & Dietetics. 64 (Supplement s4): S102–S107. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0080.2007.00194.x. ISSN 1747-0080. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
Zimmer, Carl (August 13, 2015). "For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs". The New York Times. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
Organ, Chris; Nunn, Charles L.; Machanda, Zarin; Wrangham, Richard W. (August 30, 2011). "Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (35): 14555–14559. Bibcode: 2011PNAS...10814555O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107806108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3167533. PMID 21873223.
David-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2013). "Processing Power Limits Social Group Size: Computational Evidence for the Cognitive Costs of Sociality". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 280 (1765): 20131151. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1151. PMC 3712454. PMID 23804623.
Barton, Robert A.; Venditti, Chris (October 20, 2014). "Rapid Evolution of the Cerebellum in Humans and Other Great Apes". Current Biology. 24 (20): 2440–2444. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.056. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 25283776.
Starowicz-Filip, Anna; Milczarek, Olga; Kwiatkowski, Stanisław; et al. (2013). "Cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome CCAS – a case report" (PDF). Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. 3: 57–64. OCLC 220954272.
Feng Yu; Qing-jun Jiang; Xi-yan Sun; et al. (August 22, 2014). "A new case of complete primary cerebellar agenesis: clinical and imaging findings in a living patient". Brain. 138 (Pt 6): e353. doi:10.1093/brain/awu239. ISSN 1460-2156. PMC 4614135. PMID 25149410.
Weaver, Anne H. (March 8, 2005). "Reciprocal evolution of the cerebellum and neocortex in fossil humans". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (10): 3576–3580. Bibcode: 2005PNAS..102.3576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500692102. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 553338. PMID 15731345.
Klein, Stefan (2014). Survival of the Nicest. The Experiment. ISBN 978-1615190904.
Dunbar, R.I.M. (1992). "Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates". Journal of Human Evolution. 22 (6): 469–493. Doi: 10.1016/0047-2484(92)90081-j.
Dávid-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2013-08-22). "Processing power limits social group size: computational evidence for the cognitive costs of sociality". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1765): 20131151. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1151. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3712454. PMID 23804623.
Shultz, Susanne; Dunbar, Robin (2010-12-14). "Encephalization is not a universal macroevolutionary phenomenon in mammals but is associated with sociality". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (50): 21582–21586. Bibcode: 2010PNAS.10721582S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1005246107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3003036. PMID 21098277.
Richard, Potts (1998). "Environmental Hypotheses of Hominin Evolution". American Journal of Physical Anthropology: The Official Publication of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. 107: 93–136. Doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1998)107:27 (inactive 2018-09-27).
Tanner, Nancy Makepeace; Tanner (1981). On Becoming Human. CUP Archive. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-521-28028-0.
Reno, Philip L.; Lovejoy, C. Owen (2015-04-28). "From Lucy to Kadanuumuu: balanced analyses ofAustralopithecus afarensisassemblages confirm only moderate skeletal dimorphism". PeerJ. 3: e925. doi:10.7717/peerj.925. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 4419524. PMID 25945314.
Lovejoy, C. Owen (2009-10-02). "Reexamining Human Origins in Light of Ardipithecus ramidus". Science. 326 (5949): 74–74e8. Bibcode: 2009Sci...326...74L. doi:10.1126/science.1175834. ISSN 0036-8075.
Young, Richard W (January 2003). "Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing". Journal of Anatomy. 202 (1): 165–174. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00144.x. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 1571064. PMID 12587931.
Miriam Ittyerah (2013). Hand Preference and Hand Ability: Evidence from studies in Haptic Cognition. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-9027271648.
Frank R. Wilson. "The Hand How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture". The New York Times. Pantheon Books. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
Pontzer, Herman (2016). "Metabolic acceleration and the evolution of human brain size and life history". Nature. 533 (7603): 390–392. Bibcode: 2016Natur.533...390P. doi: 10.1038/nature17654. PMC 4942851. PMID 27144364.
[This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0).]
